Glossary

Absorption is the process of getting nutrients from the digestive tract into the blood or lymph.

AND is the largest organization of nutrition professionals worldwide and dietitians registered with the AND are committed to helping Americans eat well and live healthier lives. Source: https://www.eatright.org/

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) is the calculated range of how much energy from carbohydrates, fats, and protein is recommended for a healthy diet.

Accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas) do not come directly in contact with food or digestive contents, but still play a crucial role in the digestive process.

Acid–base balance refers to the balance between input (intake and production) and output (elimination) of hydrogen ion. 
Source - https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/acid-base-balance

see calcitriol

The location within the enzyme where the substrate binds is called the enzyme’s active site. 

Active transport requires energy to move against the concentration gradient (low to high concentration).

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the body’s immediate fuel source of energy that can be generated either with the presences of oxygen known as aerobic metabolism or without the presence of oxygen by anaerobic metabolism.

Adequate refers to a diet that provides sufficient amounts of each essential nutrient, as well as fiber and calories.

Adequate Intake are created for nutrients when there is insufficient consistent scientific evidence to set an EAR for the entire population.

Adulthood is the period from adolescence to the end of life and begins at age nineteen.

Aerobic capacity, or VO2 is the most common standard for evaluating cardiorespiratory endurance. VO2 max is your maximal oxygen uptake, and the VO2 max test measures the amount of oxygen (in relation to body weight) that you can use per minute.  This value of oxygen consumption is referred to as VO2 max, ‘V’ meaning volume, and ‘max’ meaning the maximum amount of oxygen (O2) an individual is capable of utilizing.

Aerobic exercise is continuous exercise (lasting more than 2 minutes) that can range from low to high levels of intensity.

Aerobic respiration refers to the process by which cells make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the presence of oxygen. This is the reason why we breathe oxygen in from the air. Aerobic respiration involves glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain / chemiosmosis.

The most abundant protein in blood is the butterfly-shaped protein known as albumin. Albumin’s presence in the blood makes the protein concentration in the blood similar to that in cells.

Aldosterone is released in response to angiotensin stimulation and is controlled by blood electrolyte concentrations. In either case, aldosterone communicates the same message, to increase sodium reabsorption and consequently water reabsorption.

An allergy occurs when a protein in food triggers an immune response, which results in the release of antibodies, histamine, and other defenders that attack foreign bodies. Possible symptoms include itchy skin, hives, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and nausea. 

Food manufacturers are required by the FDA to list on their packages if the product contains any of the eight most common ingredients that cause food allergies. These eight common allergens are as follows: milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, shellfish, soy, and wheat.

Alpha-Lipoic acid: reacts with reactive oxygen species such as superoxide radicals, hydroxyl radicals, hypochlorous acid, peroxyl radicals, and singlet oxygen. It also protects membranes by interacting with vitamin C, which may in turn recycle vitamin E.

Amenorrhea refers to the absence of a menstrual cycle. 

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, simple subunits composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

Anabolism refers to anabolic metabolic pathways. Anabolic pathways use energy to build polymers from smaller molecules.

Anaerobic cellular respiration is a way that many types of bacteria produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the absence of oxygen. During anaerobic cellular respiration, bacterial cells use the same three basic stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain / chemiosmosis, but another molecule is used in place of oxygen gas. Human cells cannot do anaerobic respiration; in the absence of oxygen, human cells use lactic acid fermentation to make ATP.

Anaerobic exercise consists of short duration, high intensity movements that rely on immediately available energy sources and require little or no oxygen during the activity. 

Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening reaction (from a severe allergy) that results in difficulty breathing, swelling in the mouth and throat, decreased blood pressure, shock, or even death.

Anemia is when a person's ability to carry oxygen throughout the body is lowered, due to a lack of red blood cells and/or hemoglobin.

Angiotensin is a hormone that regulates blood pressure. When blood pressure is low, angiotensin targets three different organs (the adrenal glands, the hypothalamus, and the muscle tissue surrounding the arteries) to increase blood volume and raise blood pressure.

Anorexia nervosa is a potentially fatal condition characterized by undereating and excessive weight loss. People with this disorder are preoccupied with dieting, calories, and food intake to an unhealthy degree. Anorexics have a poor body image, which leads to anxiety, avoidance of food, a rigid exercise regimen, fasting, and a denial of hunger. The condition predominantly affects females. 

Anthropometry- measurements taken to assess growth and body composition to determine nutritional health: length, height, weight, head circumference, mid-arm circumference, skin-fold thickness, head/chest ratio, and hip/waist ratio.

An antibody is a protein produced by the body's immune system when it detects harmful substances, called antigens. Examples of antigens include microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses) and chemicals.
Source - https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002223.htm

An antigen is a substance that activates the immune response, causing production of antibodies.

Antioxidants combat free radicals, ROS, and oxidative stress. They donate an electron from itself to a free radical, in order to regenerate a stable compound e.g. vitamins A, C and E.

Appetite refers to when you want to eat food. This is different from hunger.

Apple-shaped bodies are people who carry more weight around the waist.  

Riboflavin deficiency is often accompanied by other dietary deficiencies (most notably protein) and can be common in people that suffer from alcoholism. This deficiency will usually also occur in conjunction with deficiencies of other B vitamins because the majority of B vitamins have similar food sources. Its signs and symptoms include dry, scaly skin, cracking of the lips and at the corners of the mouth, sore throat, itchy eyes, and light sensitivity.

Arterial plaque is a fatty deposit that accumulates on the arterial wall.

Artificial sweeteners are zero calorie or low-calorie replacements for sugar that have been manufactured.  They are not nutrients and have no nutritious value.

Atherosclerosis is a condition that occurs when too much plaque builds up in your arteries, causing them to narrow.

Digestive secretions decline later in life as well, which can lead to atrophic gastritis (inflammation of the lining of the stomach).

Thiamin - vitamin B1

Pantothenic acid

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Biotin (Vitamin B7)

A balanced diet results when you do not consume one nutrient at the expense of another, but rather get appropriate amounts of all nutrients.

Barrett’s esophagus occurs when the linings of the esophagus transform to tissue types that are more consistent with the linings of the stomach or intestine.

The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy required by the body to conduct its basic functions over a certain time period.

Basal metabolism refers to the calories you burn while at rest. See basal metabolic rate.

 Thiamin deficiency, also known as beriberi, can cause symptoms of fatigue, confusion, movement impairment, pain in the lower extremities, swelling, and heart failure. 

Bile is produced in the liver and takes part in fat digestion. Bile acts as an emulsifier, or detergent. It, along with phospholipids, breaks the large triglyceride droplets into smaller triglyceride droplets that increase the surface area accessible for digestive enzymes.

People who suffer from binge-eating disorder experience regular episodes of eating an extremely large amount of food in a short period of time. Binge eating is a compulsive behavior, and people who suffer from it typically feel it is beyond their control. This behavior often causes feelings of shame and embarrassment, and leads to obesity, high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, Type 2 diabetes, and other health problems. Both males and females suffer from binge-eating disorder.

The term bioavailability refers to the proportion or fraction of a nutrient, consumed in the diet, that is absorbed and utilized by the body.
Source - https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/15648265110321S104

Also known as laboratory methods of assessment. Biochemical assessments include measuring a nutrient or its metabolite in the blood, feces, urine or other tissues that have a relationship with the nutrient

Biotin is required as a coenzyme in the citric acid cycle and in lipid metabolism. It is also required as an enzyme in the synthesis of glucose and some nonessential amino acids.

A specific enzyme, biotinidase, is required to release biotin from protein so that it can be absorbed in the gut. 

Blood pressure is the force of moving blood against arterial walls. It is reported as the systolic pressure over the diastolic pressure, which is the greatest and least pressure on an artery that occurs with each heartbeat.

Body composition is the proportion of fat and fat-free mass (which includes bones, muscles and organs) in your body. A healthy and physically fit individual has a greater proportion of muscle and smaller proportion of fat than an unfit individual of the same weight.

BMI is a person’s weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters. A high BMI can indicate high body fatness.
Source - https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/adult/defining.html

A bone mineral density (BMD) test measures how much calcium and other types of minerals are in an area of your bone.
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007197.htm

Bulimia nervosa is characterized by alternating cycles of overeating and undereating. People who suffer from it partake in binge eating, followed by compensatory behavior, such as self-induced vomiting, laxative use, and compulsive exercise. As with anorexia, most people with this condition are female.

The activated form of vitamin D. (Vitamin D3).

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and greater than 99 percent of it is stored in bone tissue. Although only 1 percent of the calcium in the human body is found in the blood and soft tissues, it is here that it performs the most critical functions.

A Calorie is a unit of food energy. 1 kilocalorie = 1 Calorie = 1000 calories

Cancer is a term used for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control. Cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems. There are more than 100 kinds of cancer.

In canning, foods are placed into jars or cans and heated to a temperature that destroys any bacteria, often by boiling.  The containers are also vacuum sealed to prevent other bacteria from entering after the container cools down.

Carbohydrates are a macronutrient composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio and are soluble in water.

The cardio zone occurs when high intensity aerobic activity keeps the heart rate between about 70 to 85% of your maximum heart rate.

Cardiorespiratory endurance is the ability to perform large-muscle, whole-body exercise at moderate to high intensities for extended periods of time.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK241309/

About 10 percent of plant-derived carotenoids, including beta-carotene, can be converted in the body to retinoids and are another source of functional vitamin A. Carotenoids are pigments synthesized by plants that give them their yellow, orange, and red color.

Catabolism refers to catabolic metabolic pathways. Catabolic pathways break down polymers into their monomers, releasing energy

Antioxidant enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide to water, using iron as a cofactor.

Celiac disease is a condition in which people cannot consume the protein gluten because it causes their body to generate an autoimmune response (immune cells attack the body’s own cells) that causes damage to the villi in the intestine.

Cells are the most basic building units of life. All living things are composed of cells.

Glucose and other molecules from food are broken down to release energy in a complex series of chemical reactions that together are called cellular respiration.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are the government agency tasked with monitoring illness in the United States.  They gather data from public health departments in all 50 states and monitor the data to detect new outbreaks of disease, monitor existing health concerns, and track the success of public health initiatives.  The CDC also carries out research and trains public health experts who can be dispatched to control outbreaks of disease.  Much of the CDC’s work is focused on infectious disease, but they also track cases of foodborne illness.https://www.cdc.gov/

Chemical Digestion:  Enzymatic breakdown of food

This flow of hydrogen ions across the membrane through ATP synthase is called chemiosmosis.

The Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) offers meals and snacks at child-care centers, daycare homes, and after-school programs. 

Childhood, takes place from ages four to eight.

Chloride is the primary negatively-charged ion in extracellular fluid. Chloride aids in fluid balance mainly because it follows sodium in order to maintain charge neutrality. It also have many other functions.

cholecystectomy is surgery to remove the gallbladder.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates the secretion of digestive enzymes, also stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder causing the secretion of stored bile into the duodenum.

Cholesterol is a fat-like substance in the body. High levels in the blood can lead to heart disease and stroke.

Chylomicrons are lipoproteins formed by the merging of a protein carrier, triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids.  

When the hydrogen atoms are bonded to the same side of the carbon chain, it is called a cis fatty acid.

Citric acid cycle is a series of reactions also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle or the Krebs cycle. The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules—amino acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates. Most fuel molecules enter the cycle as acetyl coenzyme.
Source - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21163/

Clinical signs and symptoms that might indicate potential specific nutrient deficiency, attention are given to organs such as skin, eyes, tongue, ears, mouth, hair, nails, and gums.

Cobalamin is vitamin B12

Small organic molecules that are required for enzyme activation. (Organic cofactors)

Cofactors can be either organic or inorganic molecules that are required by enzymes to function. 

Colic is a common problem during infancy, characterized by crankiness and crying jags.

Collagen is the most abundant protein in the body. Collagen is a strong, fibrous protein made up of mostly glycine and proline.

Colostrum is produced immediately after birth, prior to the start of milk production, and lasts for several days after the arrival of the baby. It is thicker than breast milk, and is yellowish or creamy in color. Colostrum is packed with concentrated nutrition for newborns. This special milk is high in fat-soluble vitamins, minerals, and immunoglobulins (antibodies) that pass from the mother to the baby. Immunoglobulins provide passive immunity for the newborn and protect the baby from bacterial and viral diseases.

Incomplete protein foods are called complementary foods because when consumed in tandem they contain all nine essential amino acids at adequate levels. 

Foods that contain all nine essential amino acids are called complete protein sources, or high-quality protein sources. 

Concentration gradient is a result of an unequal distribution of solutes within a solution.

The Consumer Price Index (CPI) measures changes in the price level paid for goods and services. This economic indicator is based on the expenditures of the residents of urban areas, including working professionals, the self-employed, the poor, the unemployed, and retired workers, as well as urban wage earners and clerical workers.

Copper, like iron, assists in electron transfer in the electron-transport chain. Furthermore, copper is a cofactor of enzymes essential for iron absorption and transport. The other important function of copper is as an antioxidant.

Coronary artery disease is a type of heart disease that occurs when a substance called plaque builds up in the arteries that supply blood to the heart.

A condition that can be caused by iodine deficiency during fetal development or infancy. Lack of thyroid hormone during brain development can lead to severe physical and neurological impairment.

Crohn’s disease can occur anywhere throughout the GI tract, but most commonly occurs in the last part of the ileum. Crohn’s disease may also involve all layers of the intestine.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is one of the most prevalent inherited diseases in people of European descent. It is caused by a mutation in a protein that transports chloride ions out of the cell. CF’s signs and symptoms include salty skin, poor digestion and absorption (leading to poor growth), sticky mucus accumulation in the lungs (causing increased susceptibility to respiratory infections), liver damage, and infertility.

The Daily Value (DV) represents the recommended amount of a given nutrient based on the RDI of that nutrient in a 2,000-kilocalorie diet. The percentage of Daily Value (percent DV) represents the proportion of the total daily recommended amount that you will get from one serving of the food.

Defecation:  Elimination of solid, indigestible waste.

Dehydration refers to water loss from the body without adequate replacement. Physiologically, dehydration decreases blood volume. Signs and symptoms of dehydration include thirst, dizziness, fainting, headaches, low blood-pressure, fatigue, low to no urine output, and, in extreme cases, loss of consciousness and death.

Denaturation refers to the physical changes that take place in a protein exposed to abnormal conditions in the environment. Heat, acid, high salt concentrations, alcohol, and mechanical agitation can cause proteins to denature. When a protein denatures, its complicated folded structure unravels, and it becomes just a long strand of amino acids again.

Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet is an eating plan that is low in saturated fat, cholesterol, and total fat. Fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy foods, whole-grain foods, fish, poultry, and nuts are emphasized while red meats, sweets, and sugar-containing beverages are mostly avoided.

Dietary fibers are polysaccharides that are highly branched and cross-linked. Humans do not produce the enzymes that can break down dietary fiber; however, bacteria in the large intestine (colon) do. Dietary fibers are very beneficial to our health.

Dietary folate equivalents (DFE) to reflect the fact that folic acid is more bioavailable and easily absorbed than folate found in food.

The combination of foods and beverages that an individual consumes over time.

“Dietary Reference Intakes” (DRI) is an umbrella term for four reference values: Estimated Average Requirements (EAR), Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), Adequate Intakes (AI), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL).

Dietitians are nutrition professionals who integrate their knowledge of nutritional science into helping people achieve a healthy diet and develop good dietary habits. 1.1.

The process of breaking down food into its component parts is called digestion.  Both chemical and mechanical break down occur in the digestive tract.

Disaccharides are made up of two monosaccharides and are commonly found in fruits and vegetables, including sugar beets and sugar cane, and as lactose in dairy products.

When following a balanced, healthful diet with many nutrient-dense foods, you may consume enough of your daily nutrients before you reach your daily calorie limit. The remaining calories are discretionary (to be used according to your best judgment).

Disease is defined as any abnormal condition affecting the health of an organism, and is characterized by specific signs and symptoms. 

Diverticula (plural, diverticulum singular), or out- pouches, are formed at weak points in the large intestine, primarily in the lowest section of the sigmoid colon.

Diverticulitis occurs when one or a few diverticula in the wall of your colon become inflamed.
Source - https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/diverticulosis-diverticulitis

Duodenum is the first part of the small intestine.

Dyslipidemia is the condition of having high levels of cholesterol and lipids in the blood, and/or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL).  Dyslipidemia can lead to cardiovascular disease and other medical concerns.

Some older adults have difficulty getting adequate nutrition because of the disorder dysphagia, which impairs the ability to swallow. Any damage to the parts of the brain that control swallowing can result in dysphagia, therefore stroke is a common cause. Dysphagia is also associated with advanced dementia because of overall brain function impairment.

Eating disorders involve extreme behavior related to food and exercise.

Eicosanoids are powerful hormones that control many important body functions, such as the central nervous system and the immune system.

Electrolytes are substances that, when dissolved in water, dissociate into charged ions.

The energy carrier molecules produced during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are used to power the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis (together known as oxidative phosphorylation). The end result of this is the majority of ATP produced during aerobic.

When a food provides primarily calories, and little else of value to our health, we say that food has "empty calories."

Emulsifiers can keep oil and water mixed. Emulsions are mixtures of two liquids that do not mix. 

Energy is the ability to do work or to create some kind of change.

Energy balance is achieved when intake of energy is equal to energy expended. See positive and negative energy balance as well.

Enrichment is applicable when the natural contents of some micronutrients normally available in the food are intentionally increased.
Source - https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/food-enrichment

Enterocytes are the cells that line the villi of the small intestine and absorb nutrients. (also known as enteric cells or brush border cells).

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) works to protect human health and the environment. Founded in 1970, the agency conducts environmental assessment, education, research, and regulation. The EPA also works to prevent pollution and protect natural resources. Two of its many regulatory practices in the area of agriculture include overseeing water quality and the use of pesticides.The EPA approves pesticides and other chemicals used in agriculture, and sets limits on how much residue can remain on food. The FDA analyzes food for surface residue and waxes

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body and are involved in all aspects of body functions from producing energy, to digesting nutrients, to building macromolecules.

The CDC defines epidemiological studies as scientific investigations that define frequency, distribution, and patterns of health events in a population. These studies describe the occurrence and patterns of health events over time.

 Epigenetics is the study of how your behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work. (https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/disease/epigenetics.htm)

Inactive form of vitamin D, must be converted to calcitriol to function. (Also called Vitamin D2.)

Essential amino acids are amino acid we must consume as the body cannot synthesize them either at all or in sufficient amounts. There are nine forms and they must be consumed.

There are some fatty acids that the body cannot synthesize and these are called essential fatty acids. Essential fatty acids must be obtained from food. They fall into two categories—omega-3 and omega-6.

Essential nutrients - Essential nutrients are substances we must consume to stay healthy. 1.2

Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) is determined by a committee of nutrition experts who review the scientific literature to determine a value that meets the requirements of 50 percent of people in their target group within a given life stage and for a particular sex.

Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) is the estimated number of calories needed to maintain caloric balance.

EER is a standardized mathematical prediction of a person’s daily energy needs in kilocalories per day required to maintain weight.

The extracellular water compartment into interstitial fluid (in the spaces between cells), blood plasma, and other bodily fluids such as the cerebrospinal fluid which surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord.

If parents try to feed an infant who is too young or is not ready, their tongue will push the food out, which is called an extrusion reflex. 

Facilitated diffusion is the type of passive transport is similar to diffusion in that it also moves with the concentration gradient (higher concentration to lower concentration). While it requires no energy, it does require a carrier protein to transport the solute across.

Insufficient weight or height gain during infancy may indicate a condition known as failure-to-thrive (FTT), which is characterized by poor growth. FTT can happen at any age, but in infancy, it typically occurs after six months.

The Farm Bill (introduced in 1990) is a massive piece of legislation that determines the farm and food policy of the federal government. It addresses policy related to federal food programs and other responsibilities of the USDA. The Farm Bill also covers a wide range of agricultural programs and provisions, including farm subsidies and rural development. And, it influences international trade, commodity prices, environmental preservation, and food safety.

Fast-releasing carbohydrates, often called simple sugars, are quickly broken down to provide energy. ( see slow-releasing carbohydrates)

The fat-burning zone is a low intensity aerobic activity that keeps your heart rate between 60 and 69% of your maximum heart rate. About 50% of the calories burned in this zone come from fat.

Fat-soluble molecules are molecules that dissolve in oils and other lipids, not in water. Fat-soluble nutrients are found in foods containing fat and are absorbed first into the lymphatic system and then moved to the blood system. Excess fat-soluble vitamins are stored in fatty tissue or the liver.

The “female athlete triad” is a combination of three conditions characterized by amenorrhea, disrupted eating patterns, and osteoporosis. 

Fermentation is the process by which some types of bacteria or yeast break down carbohydrates to make ATP in the absence of oxygen. Some types of fermentation produce molecules that are toxic to bacteria. Different fermenting microbes produce different molecules through fermentation, including alcohol, carbon dioxide, and acids. The ethanol in wine, beer, and other alcoholic beverages and the carbon dioxide that causes bread to rise before baking are both products of fermentation. When fermentation is being used as food preservation, the fermentation product is usually lactic acid.

Consumption of alcoholic beverages results in a range of abnormalities that fall under the umbrella of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. They include learning and attention deficits, heart defects, and abnormal facial features

From the ninth week after conception until birth, a developing human baby is called a fetus.

Flexibility is the range of motion available to your joints.

Fluid balance refers to maintaining the distribution of water in the body.

Fluoride is known mostly as the mineral that combats tooth decay. It assists in tooth and bone development and maintenance.

The optimal fluoride concentration in water to prevent tooth decay ranges between 0.7–1.2 milligrams per liter. Exposure to fluoride at three to five times this concentration before the growth of permanent teeth can cause fluorosis, which is the mottling and discoloring of the teeth

Folate is a required coenzyme for the synthesis of the amino acid methionine, and for making RNA and DNA.

Food additives are substances added to food to maintain or improve its safety, freshness, taste, texture, or appearance.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-additives

The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 gives the FDA authority over food ingredients. The FDA enforces the safety of domestic and imported foods. It also monitors supplements, food labels, claims that corporations make about the benefits of products, and pharmaceutical drugs. Sometimes, the FDA must recall contaminated foods and remove them from the market to protect public health.

Food infections are from microbes in food.

A food intolerance is an unpleasant digestive tract response to certain foods that does not involve an immune reaction. Lactose intolerance is the most common example.

Food intoxications are caused by natural toxins or harmful chemicals. These and other unspecified agents are major contributors to episodes of acute gastroenteritis and other kinds of foodborne illness. Like pathogens, toxins and chemicals can be introduced to food during cultivation, harvesting, processing, or distribution.

Food irradiation (the application of ionizing radiation to food) is a technology that improves the safety and extends the shelf life of foods by reducing or eliminating microorganisms and insects. 

Toddlers may go on a food jag and eat one or two preferred foods—and nothing else.

See foodborne illness

Food preservation includes the handling or treating of food to prevent or slow down spoilage.

Food processing involves transforming raw ingredients into packaged food, from fresh-baked goods to frozen dinners. 

See Foodborne illness (food poisoning)

Foodborne illness (food poisoning) is a common public health problem that can result from exposure to a disease-causing microbe or a toxin via food or beverages.

Fortification is adding new nutrients to enhance a food’s nutritive value. For example, folic acid is typically added to cereals and grain products, while calcium is added to some orange juice.

Free Radical – a molecule with an unpaired electron in its outer orbital. Free radicals are highly reactive because they actively seek an electron to stabilize (pair with) the unpaired electron within the molecule. This makes free radicals very strong oxidants.

Functional fibers have been added to foods and have been shown to provide health benefits to humans.

Functional foods are generally understood to be a food, or a food ingredient, that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients (macro and micronutrients) it contains. Functional foods are often a rich source of a phytochemicals or zoochemicals, or contain more of a certain nutrient than a normal food.

The gallbladder is a GI tract accessory organ that stores bile.

Gallstones are formed when bile hardens in the gallbladder.

Gastric pits are indentations in the stomach’s surface that contain hormone- and enzyme-producing cells of the stomach.

see -atrophic gastritis

The leaking of the very acidic gastric contents results in a burning sensation commonly referred to as “heartburn.” If this occurs more than twice per week and is severe, the person may have gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

The gastrointestinal (GI or digestive) tract, the passageway through which our food travels, is a “tube within a tube.”

Genes are responsible for your many traits as an individual and are defined as the sequences of DNA that code for all the proteins in your body.

Genetically modified organisms (also known as GM or GMO foods), are plants or animals that have undergone some form of genetic engineering.

The complete set of genes in an organism's DNA.

Gestational diabetes is an abnormal glucose tolerance during pregnancy. The body becomes resistant to the hormone insulin, which enables cells to transport glucose from the blood. 

Gestational hypertension is a condition of high blood pressure during the second half of pregnancy. Also referred to as pregnancy-induced hypertension.  

Glucagon communicates to the cells in the body to stop using all the glucose. More specifically, it signals the liver to break down glycogen and release the stored glucose into the blood, so that glucose levels stay within the target range and all cells get the needed fuel to function properly.

Glucogenic amino acids , and can be converted to either pyruvate or a citric acid cycle intermediate.

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.

Glucose, the most abundant carbohydrate in the human body, is a monosaccharide, has six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms. 

Glutathione peroxidase (GPX): is a selenoenzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide to water. It can also convert other reactive oxygen species (ROSs) to water.

Gluten is a protein that is bound to starch in the endosperm of grains such as: wheat, barley, rye and triticale.

The glycemic responses of various foods have been measured and then ranked in comparison to a reference food, usually a slice of white bread or just straight glucose, to create a numeric value called the glycemic index (GI). 

The Glycemic load is calculated by multiply the glycemic index by the amount to carbohydrates in the food and dividing the answer by 100.

Glycogenesis occurs when there is a lot of ATP present, the extra glucose is converted into glycogen for storage.

The break down of glycogen to glucose is called glycogenolysis.

Glycolysis is a step in cellular respiration when a  6-carbon glucose is broken in half and a small amount of energy is transferred to ATP and other energy carrier molecules.

Gout is a disease caused by elevated circulating levels of uric acid and is characterized by recurrent attacks of tender, hot, and painful joints. There is some evidence that a higher intake of vitamin C reduces the risk of gout.

“Greenwashing” is a derisive term (similar to “whitewashing”) for a corporation or industry falsely utilizing a pro-environmental image or message to expand its market base.

The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a program within the food industry designed to promote food safety and prevent contamination by identifying all areas in food production and retail where contamination could occur.

Head Start is a health and development program for children aged three to five, from low- income families. The philosophy behind the organization is that early intervention can help address the educational, social, and nutritional deficiencies that children from lower-income families often experience. 

Health as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity

A health claim is a statement that links a particular food with a reduced risk of developing disease and must be evaluated by the FDA prior to use.

“heart disease” refers to several types of heart conditions. The most common type is coronary artery disease, which can cause a heart attack. Other kinds of heart disease may involve the valves in the heart, or the heart may not pump well and cause heart failure. 

Heat cramps are involuntary muscle spasms that usually involve the muscle being exercised, which causes by an imbalance of electrolytes, usually sodium.

Heat exhaustion occurs when dehydration decreases blood volume to a degree that cooling the body is no longer possible. Symptoms include heavy sweating, rapid breathing, and disorientation.

Heat stroke is a life-threatening condition that occurs when the body temperature is greater than 105.1°F (40.6°C). It is the result of the body being unable to sufficiently cool itself by thermoregulatory mechanisms. 

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a spiral-shaped bacterium that penetrates the stomach lining , making the tissue more susceptible to the damaging effects of acid, leading to the development of sores and ulcers.

Hemochromatosis is the result of a genetic mutation that leads to abnormal iron metabolism and an accumulation of iron in certain tissues such as the liver, pancreas, and heart. The signs and symptoms of hemochromatosis are similar to those of iron overload in tissues caused by high dietary intake of iron or other non-genetic metabolic abnormalities, but are often increased in severity.

Hemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying protein within red blood cells.

Hemorrhoids are swollen or inflamed veins of the anus or lower rectum.

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a sweetener made from corn syrup that has been processed to contain nearly equal amounts of the simple sugars fructose and glucose (42% fructose or 55% fructose).  HFCS is often used as a replacement for sucrose (table sugar) in processed foods, due to its increased sweetness and ease of use in industrial recipes.

A protein is considered high-quality, by nutritional standards, if it contains all the essential amino acids in the proportions needed by the human body.

Prolonged muscle use (such as exercise for longer than a few hours) can deplete the glycogen energy reserves and is characterized by fatigue and a decrease in exercise performance. This is often referred to as "hitting the wall".

A hormone is a compound that is produced in one tissue, released into circulation, then has an effect on a different organ.

Hunger is a physical sensation of feeling empty that is communicated to the brain by both mechanical and chemical signals from the periphery. Contrast with appetite.

Hydrogenation is the addition of hydrogen to a molecule.  This is typically done with oils to make them more saturated, which makes them more solid and stable at room temperature.

Hypercalcemia is an abnormally high level of calcium in the blood.

Hyperemesis gravidarum is a severe form of pregnancy-associated nausea. It is marked by prolonged vomiting, which can result in dehydration and require hospitalization.

Hyperglycemia is when blood glucose levels are higher than normal. Hyperglycemia is usually associated with diabetes, but it can occur in response to medications or other health conditions.

Hyperkalemia is abnormally high levels of potassium in the blood. Extremely high levels of potassium in the blood disrupt the electrical impulses that stimulate the heart and can cause the heart to stop. Hyperkalemia is usually the result of kidney dysfunction.

Hypertension is the scientific term for high blood pressure and defined as a sustained blood pressure of 140/90 mmHg or greater. Hypertension is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, and reducing blood pressure has been found to decrease the risk of dying from a heart attack or stroke.

Hypoglycemia is when blood glucose levels are lower than normal. Hypoglycemia can lead to feelings of tiredness, anxiety, or irritability, and if not treated, can progress to seizures and lack of consciousness, as the brain is unable to function without glucose as an energy source.

Hypokalemia is insufficient potassium levels in the body. The signs and symptoms include muscle weakness and cramps, respiratory distress, and constipation. Severe potassium depletion can cause the heart to have abnormal contractions and can even be fatal.

Hyponatremia is abnormally low blood sodium levels. The symptoms of hyponatremia, include nausea, muscle cramps, confusion, dizziness, and in severe cases, coma and death.

The hypothalamus is a region of the brain that controls many different unconscious activities, including appetite and body temperature.

Hypothyroidism occurs when insufficient amounts of thyroid hormone are produced. Signs and symptoms including fatigue, sensitivity to cold, constipation, weight gain, depression, dry skin, and paleness.

Foods that contain some of the essential amino acids, but not all, are called incomplete protein sources.

Infancy is the earliest part of childhood. It is the period from birth through age one.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) refers to a number of inflammatory conditions in the intestine. The two most common are Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis.

Taking food into the mouth.

Insensible water loss is the loss of water from our bodies of which we are unaware.

Insulin is a hormone released from the pancreas that brings blood glucose levels down. Insulin sends a signal to the body’s cells to remove glucose from the blood by transporting it into different organ cells around the body and using it to make energy. In the case of muscle tissue and the liver, insulin sends the biological message to store glucose away as glycogen.

Interventional clinical trial studies are scientific investigations in which participants receive a specific treatment (or intervention). Participants receiving the intervention are compared to a control group that receives no intervention or a placebo.

See food intoxication.

Iodine is a micronutrient that is used to make thyroid hormone. Thyroid hormones regulate protein synthesis, metabolism and enzymatic activity. They are also required for proper skeletal and central nervous system development in fetuses and infants.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is characterized by muscle spasms in the colon that result in abdominal pain, bloating, constipation, and/or diarrhea.

Jaundice is a yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes caused by liver failure. Bilirubin is a substance created by the breakdown of red blood cells and is removed by the liver. If the liver cannot remove bilirubin, bilirubin accumulates in the skin, giving the yellow tone of jaundice. Jaundice can also occur in newborns when a newborn’s liver does not efficiently remove bilirubin from the blood.

Ketogenic amino acids can only be converted to acetyl-CoA or acetoacetyl-CoA, which cannot be used for gluconeogenesis.

Ketosis is a metabolic condition resulting from an elevation of ketone bodies in the blood. Ketone bodies are an alternative energy source that cells can use when glucose supply is insufficient, such as during fasting. Ketone bodies are acidic and high elevations in the blood can cause it to become too acidic. 

Kinetic energy is energy in motion.

Kwashiorkor occurs when a person has limited energy intake and a diet that is lacking protein.

Lactase is a digestive enzyme that breaks the bond between glucose and galactose within the disaccharide lactose.

Lactation is the synthesis and secretion of breast milk.

Lacto-ovo vegetarians eat only plant products, eggs, and dairy.

Lean foods contain fewer than a set amount of grams of fat for that particular cut of meat.

Leptin is a hormone produced by fat which suppresses appetite by communicating to the satiety center in the hypothalamus that the body is in positive energy balance.

Light or lite refer to foods that contain ⅓ fewer calories or 50% less fat; if more than half of calories come from fat, then fat content must be reduced by 50% or more

Lingual lipase is a lipid-digesting enzyme in the mouth. It has a small role in digestion in adults, but may be important for infants to help break down triglycerides in breast milk.

Lipids are a family of macronutrient molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but unlike carbohydrates, they are insoluble in water.

Lipogenesis is the synthesis of fatty acids, beginning with acetyl-CoA.

Lipolysis is the cleavage of triglycerides to glycerol and fatty acids.

A foodborne illness caused by the bacteria Listeria monocytogenes can cause spontaneous abortion and fetal or newborn meningitis. Symptoms include headaches, muscle aches, nausea, vomiting, and fever. If the infection spreads to the nervous system, it can result in a stiff neck, convulsions, or a feeling of disorientation.

Lysozyme helps break down bacteria cell walls to prevent a possible infection.

The macrobiotic diet is part of a health and wellness regimen based in Eastern philosophy. It combines certain tenets of Zen Buddhism with a vegetarian diet and supports a balance of the oppositional forces of yin and yang. Foods are paired based on their so-called yin or yang characteristics. Yin foods are thought to be sweet, cold, and passive, while yang foods are considered to be salty, hot, and aggressive.

Nutrients that are needed in large amounts and can be processed by the body into cellular energy - protein, fats and carbohydrates.

Essential mineral that serves as an essential cofactor for many enzymes. Magnesium also has a role in bone structure.

Major minerals (sometimes called macrominerals) are minerals that are required in the diet each day in amounts larger than 100 milligrams. These include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur.

Malnutrition refers to one not receiving proper nutrition and does not distinguish between the consequences of too many nutrients or the lack of nutrients, both of which impair overall health.

Maltase is a digestive enzyme that breaks the bond between the two glucose units of maltose.

Manganese ( a micronutrient) is a cofactor for enzymes that are required for carbohydrate and cholesterol metabolism, bone formation, and the synthesis of urea.

Marasmic kwashiorkor is when kwashiorkor and marasmus coexist as a combined syndrome.

Marasmus is a form of severe  malnutrition that occurs when a person is getting insufficient energy and protein.

Mature milk is the final fluid that a new lactating parent produces. In most individuals, it begins to secrete at the end of the second week after childbirth. There are two types of mature milk that appear during a feeding. Foremilk occurs at the beginning and includes water, vitamins, and protein. Hind-milk occurs after the initial release of milk and contains higher levels of fat, which is necessary for weight gain.

An antioxidant is considered meaningful when it has these two characteristics: 1) Found in appreciable amounts in a location where there are free radicals/ROS that need to be quenched, 2) It is not redundant with another antioxidant that is already providing that function.

Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking food down into smaller pieces, usually through muscle contractions, such as occurs during chewing or in the stomach.

Medical foods are designed for administration directly into the stomach under the guidance of a medical professional (enteric administration). Medical foods are created to meet very specific nutritional requirements for patients with health issues such as kidney or liver disease, or comatose patients.

The Mediterranean diet focuses on small portions of nutritionally-sound food. This diet features food from plant sources, including vegetables, fruits, whole grains, beans, nuts, seeds, breads and potatoes, and olive oil. It also limits the consumption of processed foods and recommends eating locally grown foods rich in micronutrients and antioxidants. Other aspects of this eating plan include consuming fish and poultry at least twice per week, eating red meat only a few times per month, having up to seven eggs per week, and drinking red wine in moderation.

Megaloblastic anemia is characterized by very large, abnormal red blood cells. This is usually due to a lack of due to a lack of folate or vitamin B12.

Menopause is the ending of menstruation due to lower levels of estrogen and progesterone that occur with age. A person is considered to have reached menopause when they have not menstruated in 12 months. Menopause typically occurs in the late forties or early fifties and may include a number of symptoms, such as hot flashes, mood swings, and weight gain.

Being fit also includes metabolic fitness. It relates to the number of calories you require to survive and the number of calories you burn during physical activity.

A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions that takes a starting molecule and modifies it, step-by-step, through a series of metabolic intermediates, eventually yielding a final product.

Together, all of the chemical reactions that take place inside cells, including those that consume or generate energy, are referred to as the cell’s metabolism.

Micelles are droplets with a fatty acid (hydrophobic) core and a water-soluble (hydrophilic) exterior. Bile salts in the digestive tract envelop fatty acids and monoglycerides to form micelles.

Micronutrients are nutrients required by the body in lesser amounts, but are still essential for carrying out bodily functions. Minerals and vitamins are micronutrients.

Microvilli are microscopic cell extensions that increase the surface area of a cell. They do not move. An example is the brush border membrane on intestinal cells.

Middle age is the period of adulthood that stretches from age thirty-one to fifty.

Minerals are solid inorganic substances that form crystals and are classified depending on how much of them we need. Trace minerals such as zinc, iron, or iodine are only required in a few milligrams or less per day. Major minerals such as calcium, sodium, and potassium are required in hundreds of milligrams per day.

Moderate physical activities are those where “you can talk while you do them, but can’t sing.”

Moderation in nutrition means not eating to the extremes, neither too much nor too little.

Modifiable risk factors are those we can control, such as exercise, diet, sun exposure, smoking, and alcohol use.

Modified foods have been fortified, enriched, or enhanced with additional nutrients or bioactive compounds to improve their nutritional value and health attributes. Examples include calcium-fortified orange juice, iodized salt, and cereals fortified with vitamins and minerals.

Monosaccharides are the simplest of all sugars and are the building blocks of all carbohydrates. The monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Any fatty acid that has only one double bond is a monounsaturated fatty acid.

Nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy, typically in the first trimester. Although referred to as “morning sickness,” the nausea and vomiting can occur all day long.

Myoglobin is a protein found in the muscle tissues that enhances the amount of available oxygen for muscle contraction.

US federal government multimedia tool that aims to help Americans choose healthier foods from the five food groups (grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, and proteins). Myplate.gov

The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and School Breakfast Program (SBP) ensure that children in elementary and middle schools receive at least one healthy meal each school day, or two if both the NSLP and SBP are provided.

When you are in negative energy balance you aren’t taking in enough energy to meet your needs, so your body will need to use its stores to provide energy. 

The neural tube is a hollow tube in vertebrate embryos that gives rise to the brain and spinal cord.

Niacin (vitamin B3) is a component of the coenzymes NADH and NADPH, which are involved in the catabolism and/or anabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Niacin can be synthesized by humans from the amino acid tryptophan in an anabolic process requiring enzymes dependent on riboflavin, vitamin B6, and iron. Niacin is made from tryptophan only after tryptophan has met all of its other needs in the body.

NEAT stands for Non-Exercise Activity Thermogenesis.  Even at rest we can burn calories, but we can increase the number of calories burnt by doing minor movements.

Substances in food that serve no nutritional purpose. They may be harmful or beneficial.

Nonessential amino acids are amino acids the body can make from other molecules. There are 11.

Risk factors we cannot control - age, sex, body size, family history, medical conditions and medications.

NSAIDs are medications used for the treatment of arthritis and other painful inflammatory conditions in the body. Aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), naproxen (Aleve, Naprosyn), and etodolac (Lodine) are a few examples of this class of medications.

Nutrient dense refers to food that contain many nutrients relative to the amount of calories provided.

Nutrients are substances the body needs to stay healthy.

Nutrigenomics, also called nutritional genetics, aims to identify what nutrients to eat to “turn on” healthy genes and “turn off” genes that cause disease.

Nutrition is the sum of all processes involved in how organisms obtain nutrients, metabolize them, and use them to support all of life’s processes.

FDA regulated food label that gives consumers information on the nutrition content, serving size, and number of servings in packaged food.

Nutritional science is the investigation of how an organism is nourished, and incorporates the study of how nourishment affects personal health, population health, and planetary health.

Obesity is the condition of having excess accumulation of body fat.  It is associated with health problems such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension.

An obesogenic environment is an environment that promotes increased food intake, non-healthful foods, and physical inactivity.

Older adolescence is defined as between ages fourteen and eighteen.

Oligosaccharides are carbohydrate molecules of middling size, made of 3-10 monosaccharides joined together.

Organ systems consist of two or more organs that work together to support a specific physiological function.

Organelles are distinct structures within cells that carry out specific functions.

Organic is a federally regulated term that refers to foods that contain 95% organic ingredients.

An organism is the complete living system capable of conducting all of life’s biological processes.

Organs are a group of tissues arranged in a specific manner to support a common physiological function.

Osmoreceptors are specialized protein receptors on cells of the hypothalamus that detect sodium concentration in the blood.

Osmoregulation is the control of fluid balance and composition in the body.

Osmosis is the net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from a solution where there is a low solute concentration to a solution with a higher solute concentration.

In adults, vitamin D deficiency causes a disease called osteomalacia, which is characterized by low bone mineral density (BMD). Osteomalacia has the same symptoms and consequences as osteoporosis and often coexists with osteoporosis.

Osteoporosis is a condition where the bones become fragile due to loss of bone density.

Overnutrition is the consumption of more food than needed, which can result in obesity.

An oxidant is a molecule that takes electrons away from other molecules, causing oxidation.

The electron transport chain and the production of ATP through chemiosmosis are collectively called oxidative phosphorylation. 

Oxidative stress refers to an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) orfree radicals and the body’s ability to quench them. In other words, oxidative stress is what your cells experience when you’re making more free radicals than your cells can handle.

A compound is oxidized when it loses at least one electron.

Pancreatic amylase is an enzyme made in the pancreas and released into the small intestine that breaks down starch into shorter and shorter carbohydrate chains.

Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) forms coenzyme A, which is the main carrier of carbon molecules in a cell and essential for bringing carbon atoms into the citric acid cycle.

Parathyroid hormone is a hormone released from the parathyroid gland that plays a key role in regulating blood calcium concentration. When blood calcium levels are low, PTH is secreted to increase blood calcium levels by releasing calcium from bone, acting on the kidneys to decrease calcium loss in urine, and activating vitamin D to increase calcium absorption from food.

Partially hydrogenated oils are made when hydrogen is added to vegetable oil (through the process of hydrogenation) to increase the shelf-life and flavor stability of foods.

Passive transport is the transport of molecules across the cell membrane without the use of ATP.

Pasteurization is an industrial process that eliminates bacteria in milk or juice by exposing droplets to high temperatures for a very brief amount of time.

Peak bone mass density is the highest bone mass density an individual reaches in their lifetime, typically reached in early adulthood.

"Pear-shaped” bodies refer to people who carry more weight around the hips.

Niacin deficiency is commonly known as pellagra. Symptoms include fatigue, decreased appetite, and indigestion and are commonly followed by the four D’s: diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and sometimes death.

Pepsin is a digestive enzyme in the stomach that breaks down the proteins in food into individual peptides (shorter chains of amino acids).

Peptic ulcers are painful sores in the gastrointestinal tract caused by breakdown of the lining of the digestive tract.

Peptide bonds are bonds formed between the carboxylic acid group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Peroxiredoxin is an antioxidant enzyme that participates directly in eliminating hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and neutralizing other reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU) have a mutation in the enzyme that converts the amino acid phenylalanine to the amino acid tyrosine. If their condition is not managed, they can accumulate high levels of phenylalanine which can cause brain damage.

Phospholipids are molecules with two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone.  The fatty acids give a phospholipid a hydrophobic "tail" and the phosphate group gives the phospholipid a hydrophilic "head".

Phosphorus is present in our bodies as part of a chemical group called a phosphate group. These phosphate groups are essential as a structural component of cell membranes (as phospholipids), DNA and RNA, energy production (ATP), and regulation of acid-base homeostasis. Phosphorus however is mostly associated with calcium as a part of the mineral structure of bones and teeth.

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide gas (CO2) from the atmosphere into sugar molecules, like glucose.

Phytochemicals are compounds in plants (phyto) that are believed to provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients.

Pica is a medical disorder in which a person willingly consuming foods with little or no nutritive value, such as dirt, clay, and laundry starch. 

Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of chains of monosaccharide or disaccharide units joined together. Starches and fibers are the two main groups of polysaccharides.

A polyunsaturated fatty acid is a fatty acid with two or more double bonds or two or more points of unsaturation.

A positive energy balance refers to a person taking in more kilocalories than expending.

Potassium is the most abundant positively charged ion inside of cells. Nerve impulse involves not only sodium, but also potassium. In muscle cells potassium is involved in restoring the normal membrane potential and ending the muscle contraction. Potassium also is involved in protein synthesis, energy metabolism, and platelet function, and acts as a buffer in blood, playing a role in acid-base balance.

Potential energy is stored energy, or energy waiting to happen.

A prebiotic is a non-digestible food component that selectively stimulates the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria.

Prediabetes is a serious health condition where blood sugar levels are higher than normal, but not high enough yet to be diagnosed as diabetes. Prediabetes increases your risk for type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and stroke.

Preeclampsia (sometimes referred to as toxemia) is a serious complication of pregnancy marked by elevated blood pressure, swelling, and protein in the urine.

Pregnancy is the development of a zygote into an embryo and then into a fetus in preparation for childbirth.

Primary protein structure is the sequence of amino acids in a protein.

A probiotic is a live microorganism that is consumed, and colonizes in the body 

Propulsion is the movement of food through the gastrointestinal tract.

The PDCAAS is a method adopted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to determine a food’s protein quality. It is calculated using a formula that incorporates the total amount of amino acids in the food and the amount of protein in the food that is actually digested by humans (amino acid score x digestibility). 

All cells in the body continually break down proteins and build new ones, a process referred to as protein turnover.

Proteins are macronutrient molecules composed of one or more chains of amino acids, joined by peptide bonds.

Puberty is the beginning of adolescence, typically ages nine to thirteen.

Qualified health claims have supportive evidence which is not as definitive as with (non-qualified) health claims.

The fourth (quaternary) level of protein structure is achieved when two or more amino acid chains combine to make one larger functional protein.

A randomized clinical interventional trial is a study in which participants are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments. Neither the researchers nor the participants can choose which group a participant is assigned. 

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are oxygen-containing free radicals. ROS contribute to oxidative stress within cells.

The RDA value of a nutrient is the amount calculated to meet the average daily needs of 97-98% of the healthy target population.

"Redox reactions" refers to paired oxidation and reduction reactions together.

A compound is reduced when it gains at least one electron.

A syndrome that occurs when the energy intake for athletes does not meet the high energy demands required by exercise.

See cellular respiration.

The retinoids are a family of compounds that are structurally and functionally similar to vitamin A.

Retinol is the form of vitamin A found in animal-derived foods, and is converted in the body to the biologically active forms of vitamin A: retinal and retinoic acid (thus retinol is sometimes referred to as “preformed vitamin A”)

Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is an essential component of flavoproteins, which are coenzymes involved in many metabolic pathways of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism. Flavoproteins aid in the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain. Furthermore, the functions of other B-vitamin coenzymes, such as vitamin B6 and folate, are dependent on the actions of flavoproteins.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is chemically similar to DNA, but has two differences; one is that its backbone uses the sugar ribose and not deoxyribose; and two, it contains the nucleotide base uracil, and not thymidine. RNA is the "messenger" molecule in protein translation; it carries the instructions from DNA into the cytoplasm of the cell.

Insufficient vitamin D during childhood causes rickets, a disorder characterized by soft, weak, deformed bones that are exceptionally susceptible to fracture.

Salivary amylase is an enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch into shorter carbohydrate chains.

Salivary glands are glands located in and around the mouth that release saliva, mucus, and three enzymes: salivary amylase, lingual lipase, and lysozyme.

A salt substitute is a seasoning that may be used in place of table salt. Salt substitutes may still contain sodium, just in lesser amounts than table salt.

Salt-sensitive means that a person’s blood pressure increases with increased salt intake and decreases with decreased salt intake.

Satiety is the sensation of fullness that signals you to stop eating.

The term saturation refers to whether or not a fatty acid chain is filled (or “saturated”) to capacity with hydrogen atoms. If each available carbon bond holds a hydrogen atom we call this a saturated fatty acid chain.

See The National School Lunch Program (NSLP)

The scientific method is an organized process of inquiry used in forensic science, nutritional science, and every other science.

Secondary protein structure occurs when hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acid chain to fold in a repeating pattern of a helix or a sheet.

Segmentation refers to contractions of the small intestine that mix chyme with pancreatic juices and bile.

Selenium is a mineral that acts as an antioxidant and as a cofactor of enzymes that release active thyroid hormone in cells. Low levels of selenium can cause symptoms similar to iodine deficiency.

The senior stage of life is considered to be from age fifty-one until the end of life.

Sensible water loss is loss of water from our body that we are consciously aware of.

The body's set point is considered to be the weight or amount of body fat that the brain will try to maintain.  Losing weight to below the set point will trigger an increase in energy intake. Gaining weight to above the set point will trigger an increase in energy expenditure.

Signs refer to readily observed identifying characteristics of a disease such as swelling, weight loss, or fever. Symptoms are the subjective features of a disease recognized by a patient and/or their doctor.

Simple diffusion is the movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration (with the concentration gradient) without the help of a protein.

Slow-releasing carbohydrates are long chains of simple sugars that can be branched or unbranched and slowly release sugar into the body.

Socioeconomic status is a measurement made up of three variables: income, occupation, and education. Socioeconomic status affects nutrition by influencing what foods you can afford and consequently, food choice and food quality.

The mineral sodium is vital for maintaining fluid balance, nerve impulse transmission, nutrient absorption in the small intestine, nutrient reabsorption in the kidney, and many other essential functions.

Solid fats and sugars

Solutes are substances dissolved in a fluid (the solvent).

Special dietary use foods do not have to be administered under a doctor’s care and can be found in a variety of stores. Similar to medical foods, they address special dietary needs and meet the nutritional requirements of certain health conditions. For example, a bottled oral supplement administered under medical supervision is a medical food, but it becomes a special dietary use food when it is sold to retail customers.

The Special, Supplemental Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) provides food packages to pregnant and breastfeeding women, as well as to infants and children up to age five, to promote adequate intake for healthy growth and development. Most state WIC programs provide vouchers that participants use to acquire supplemental packages at authorized stores.

Sphincters are muscular openings that separate one compartment of the digestive tract from the next.

Spina bifida is a neural-tube defect that occurs when the spine does not completely enclose the spinal cord.

A form of anemia found in athletes.  Blood volume expands to increase oxygen delivery to the muscles. In sports anemia, synthesis of red blood cells lags behind the increase in blood volume, which results in a decreased percentage of blood volume that is red blood cells.

Sterols are complex molecules related to cholesterol that contain interlinking rings of carbon atoms, with side chains of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen attached.

Structure/function claims are marketing claims on food or supplement labels that are not supported by scientific evidence. Such claims must not mention cure or treatment of a specific disease and must include a disclaimer that the claim has not been evaluated by the FDA.

The chemical reactants to which an enzyme binds are called the enzyme’s substrates.

Sucrase is a digestive enzyme that breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose molecules.

Sugar alcohols (such as sorbitol, xylitol, and glycerol) are industrially synthesized derivatives of monosaccharides. Sugar alcohols are often used in place of table sugar to sweeten foods as they are incompletely digested and absorbed, and therefore less caloric.

Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is a family of antioxidant enzymes that use copper, zinc, or manganese as cofactors. SOD converts superoxide to hydrogen peroxide and oxygen.

The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) provides monthly benefits for low-income households to purchase approved food items at authorized stores. Clients qualify for the program based on available household income, assets, and certain basic expenses.

Sustainability refers to the goal of achieving a world that meets the needs of its present inhabitants while preserving resources for future generations. 

Sustainable agriculture is an umbrella term that encompasses food production and consumption practices that do not harm the environment, that do support agricultural communities, and that are healthy for the consumer.

Sweating is a homeostatic mechanism for maintaining body temperature, which influences fluid and electrolyte balance. Sweat is mostly water but also contains some electrolytes, mostly sodium and chloride.

Tertiary protein structure is the three-dimensional shape of a single amino acid chain. As the different side chains of amino acids chemically interact, they either repel or attract each other, resulting in the folded structure.

The energy required for all the enzymatic reactions that take place during food digestion and absorption of nutrients is called the “thermic effect of food".

Thiamin (vitamin B1) acts as a coenzyme for enzymes that break down glucose for energy production. Thiamin plays a key role in nerve cells as the glucose that is catabolized by thiamin is needed for an energy source. Additionally, thiamin plays a role in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, RNA, and DNA.

Thirst is the result of your body’s physiology telling your brain to initiate the thought to take a drink. Sensory proteins detect when your mouth is dry, your blood volume too low, or blood electrolyte concentrations too high and send signals to the brain stimulating the conscious feeling to drink. Thirst is an osmoregulatory mechanism to increase water input.

The “thirst center” is the region of the brain responsible for the sensation of thirst. It is contained within the hypothalamus, a portion of the brain that lies just above the brainstem.

Tissues are groups of cells that share a common structure and function and work together.

Toddler is considered to be two to three years of age.

ULs indicate the highest level of continuous intake of a particular nutrient that may be taken without causing health problems. 

The sum of caloric expenditure in a day is referred to as total energy expenditure (TEE).

See preeclampsia

Trace minerals are classified as minerals required in the diet each day in smaller amounts, specifically 100 milligrams or less.  These include copper, zinc, selenium, iodine, chromium, fluoride, manganese, molybdenum, and others. 

In a trans fatty acid, the hydrogen atoms are attached on opposite sides of the carbon chain.

The first stage in protein synthesis, transcription is the copying of the genetic information in DNA into a single-stranded molecule of RNA.

The second stage of milk production, transitional milk begins to be produced two to four days after birth and lasts for approximately two weeks. Transitional milk includes high levels of fat, lactose, and water-soluble vitamins. It also contains more calories than colostrum.

The second stage in protein synthesis. Translation occurs when messenger RNA attaches to a ribosome, which adds amino acids to the growing protein chain in a very specific order, determined by the sequence of the RNA.

Triglycerides are the main form of lipid found in the body and in the diet. A triglyceride molecule consists of a glycerol backbone attached to three fatty acids.

Ulcerative colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease characterized by ulcers, or sores, in the lining of the colon and/or rectum.

Undernutrition is characterized by a lack of nutrients and insufficient energy supply. Compare to overnutrition.

When one or more bonds between carbon atoms are a double bond (C=C), that fatty acid is called an unsaturated fatty acid, as it has one or more points of unsaturation.

The USDA develops and executes federal policy on farming and food. This agency supports farmers and ranchers, protects natural resources, promotes trade, and seeks to end hunger in the United States and abroad. The USDA also oversees the regulation of meat, poultry, and processed egg products.

The US Dietary Guidelines for Americans are a set of evidence-based recommendations designed to help healthy people meet their nutritional needs and prevent disease.

A vegan diet eliminates all animal products.

Vigorous activities are considered to be those where you can only say a few words without stopping to catch your breath.

Villi (singular: villus) are finger-shaped projections from the inner wall of the small intestine.

Vitamin A is the name of a group of fat-soluble retinoids, including retinol, retinal, and retinyl esters. Vitamin A is involved in immune function, vision, reproduction, and cellular communication.

The B vitamins in the vitamin B complex include thiamine, riboflavin, niacin (nicotinic acid), niacinamide (nicotinamide), the vitamin B6 group (including pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine), biotin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, and vitamin B12. They are needed to support energy metabolism and growth.

Vitamin B12 is an essential part of coenzymes necessary for fat and protein catabolism, and for hemoglobin synthesis. An enzyme requiring vitamin B12 is needed by a folate-dependent enzyme to synthesize DNA. Thus, a deficiency in vitamin B12 has similar consequences to health as folate deficiency.

Vitamin B6 is a coenzyme involved in amino acid synthesis and breakdown, glycogenolysis, and synthesis of neurotransmitters. Vitamin B6 is also a required coenzyme for the synthesis of hemoglobin, and so a deficiency in vitamin B6 can cause anemia.

Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, is a highly effective antioxidant. It is also required for some signaling molecules in the brain, hormones, and amino acids, and for the synthesis of collagen protein.

Vitamin D (also referred to as calciferol) is a fat-soluble vitamin that is naturally present in a few foods, added to others, and available as a dietary supplement. It is also produced endogenously when ultraviolet (UV) rays from sunlight strike the skin and trigger vitamin D synthesis. Vitamin D is essential for calcium absorption from food.

Vitamin E occurs in eight chemical forms, of which alpha-tocopherol appears to be the only form that meets human requirements. Alpha-tocopherol and vitamin E’s other constituents are primarily responsible for protecting cell membranes against lipid destruction caused by free radicals, therefore making it an antioxidant.

Vitamin K refers to a group of fat-soluble vitamins that are similar in chemical structure. Vitamin K is critical for blood clotting. It is also important for bone health.

Vitamins are organic compounds that must be taken in from the diet.

See aerobic capacity

Water intoxication occurs when more water is taken in than is needed or than can be excreted. Excessive water intake can dilute the levels of critical electrolytes in the blood, and can be fatal.

Water-soluble molecules are molecules that dissolve in water, not in oils. Water-soluble nutrients are absorbed directly into the bloodstream. Excess water-soluble vitamins are removed in the urine.

A form of thiamin deficiency, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome can include symptoms such as confusion, loss of coordination, vision changes, hallucinations, and may progress to coma and death. This condition is specific to alcoholics as diets high in alcohol can cause thiamin deficiency.

see Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)

Vitamin A deficiency can lead to the dysfunction of the linings and coverings of the eye (eg. bitot spots), causing dryness of the eyes, a condition called xerophthalmia. 

Zinc is a cofactor for over two hundred enzymes in the human body and plays a direct role in RNA, DNA, and protein synthesis. Zinc also is a cofactor for enzymes involved in energy metabolism.

Zoochemicals are the animal equivalent of phytochemicals in plants. They are compounds in animals that are believed to provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients that food contains.

At conception, a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell, creating a zygote.