8 Intro to Researched-Based Types of Arguments

Deciding on the Purpose of a Research-Based Argument

Every argument sets out to convince readers or listeners to believe it, no?  In that sense, every argument has the same purpose.  However, there are different kinds of beliefs we might want to encourage and different attitudes we might take toward those beliefs. Besides, we may want an argument not just to convince but to lead to action. Sometimes the purpose goes beyond just “Believe me!” For example, when the argument is part of an advertisement, the goal is clear: “Buy me!”  The goal of a stump speech is to get listeners to cast their votes in support of a candidate. Sometimes, the purpose is simply to struggle with a topic in order to begin to come up with an informed opinion. Many times, the purpose of a piece of writing is to encourage critical thinking on a subject, and maybe change something wrong in our world in response.

For example, we could set out to write about global warming for different purposes. We might simply aim to make people believe that global warming is real.  Alternately, we might try to convince readers to make drastic changes in their lives to combat climate change, or to protest a particular company responsible for climate change. Our purpose will shape the ideas we express, but it will also shape the emotional appeals we make.

Identifying our purpose can help us decide what we need to include to achieve that purpose.  Often arguments with a particular kind of purpose will share common features. Below we will describe four kinds of research-based essays, each of which we will explore in more depth in a later section of this chapter.

One note: these basic strategies also can be a part of another type of essay. For example, a definition may be a crucial part of a proposal argument.

 

Purposes for research papers

We can ask ourselves which of the following best describes our purpose:

  • We want to describe the nature of something.
  • We want to assess how good or bad something is.
  • We want to demonstrate that one thing causes or caused another.
  • We want to propose some action.

An argument may contain multiple elements from this list, but if we can decide which is ultimately the most important, we can shape the introduction and conclusion with that goal in mind. Each type of argument has particular questions that may be worth addressing, as we will explore in the later sections.

In the following sections, we suggest strategies and components of four different types of arguments, matched to the four purposes mentioned above.

  • Definition arguments describe the nature of something or identify a pattern or trend. Generally speaking, they answer the question, “What is it?”
  • Evaluation arguments assess something according to particular criteria. They answer the question, “How good or bad is it?”
  • Causal arguments attempt to show that one thing leads to or has led to another. They answer the question, “What caused it?”
  • Proposal arguments present a case for action. They answer the question, “What should we do about it?”

Let’s look at some examples of argument purposes divided into these categories.

 

Definition argument examples

  • We want readers to know what kinds of communication dolphins are capable of.
  • We want to clarify which groups of people the term “Latinx” refers to.
  • We want to show how Kurdish communities differ in Iraq, Syria, and Turkey.

 

Evaluation argument examples

  • We want to recommend a gaming device.
  • We want to convince readers that the Supreme Court decision to give corporations First Amendment rights to free speech was misguided.
  • We want to show that a new Alzheimer’s drug meets the criteria for emergency use authorization.

 

Causal argument examples

  • We want to argue that the attack on the United States Capitol on January 6, 2021 actually made Americans value American democracy more and want to protect it.
  • We want to show that parents can’t change a child’s feeling of being male, female, or nonbinary.
  • We want to suggest that the Covid-19 pandemic led to an increase in internet addiction.

 

Proposal argument examples

  • We want readers to take the online Harvard Implicit Association Tests and reflect on what the results suggest about their unconscious biases.
  • We want legislators to double the gas tax in order to speed up the transition to clean energy.
  • We want to make community college free for all Americans.

 

Comparing and contrasting for different purposes

It’s worth noting that we may want to discuss more than one thing for any of the purposes above.  If we are comparing and contrasting two or more things in our essay, we will want to think about essay structure for compare and contrast essays as well as thinking about the elements of the argument according to the overall purpose. See Section 3.9: Comparing and Contrasting Arguments for more on this.

 

Exercise

For each argument below, select the category that best describes the argument’s purpose. Explain how it fits the category.

  1. Muslim women should be allowed to wear full face and body coverings such as burkas in public if they choose.
  2. Minecraft play offers many opportunities for creativity and learning.
  3. The explosion of mental health content on TikTok has reduced the shame many people feel about their mental health issues.
  4. Only apartments where the rent is less than 30% of a minimum wage worker’s income can truly be considered “affordable housing.”
  5. Composting food waste can generate energy with a minimum of greenhouse gas emissions.

 

 

Attributions
By Dylan Altman and Anna Mills, licensed CC BY-NC 4.0.

Tailoring an Argument to an Audience

There is a common misconception about writing that it is a solitary exercise. As such, each time you get stuck on a word or sentence, it may be up to you alone to move past that writer’s block. However, that’s simply not true. Beyond the support of your instructor, peers, or tutors, you have an audience that you’re writing to that can help you generate ideas and stay focused. The more we imagine our audience’s likely reactions as part of the writing process, the more likely we are to generate ideas, reach them, and convince them or affect their thinking. Why? Because an argument implies a relationship. So, read on to find out more about how you can work together with your audience to develop your paper.

An auditorium full of racially diverse young people looking thoughtful.

“Audience listens at Startup School” by Robert Scoble is licensed under CC BY 2.0

 

Audience Awareness in the Writing Process

Analyzing your audience affects nearly every stage of your writing, from early drafting to how you revise and get to the final draft. Beyond writing to answer a prompt, at a really basic level, you’re writing to be read, by your peers, your professor, or by any audience designated in your prompt. To do this effectively, consider the following questions. Many of these considerations already happen intuitively when we talk with other people. When we’re writing we need to be a bit more conscious about imagining the audience.

  • What does your audience probably already know about your topic? Depending on how much your audience knows, there may be background information you should include or leave out. For example, if we are writing on global warming in an English Composition class for an audience of an English professor and assorted students, we might need to use more detailed explanations for scientific concepts. However, if we are writing on global warming in an upper-level environmental science class, we can assume that our audience is more well-versed in the basics of climate science. We wouldn’t need to explain the details of the greenhouse effect works and could probably use more jargon from the discipline without defining every term.

  • How is your audience likely to feel about your topic? A skeptical audience needs more evidence than an open-minded one. Is the audience likely to have a prejudice or misconception that needs to be addressed? Assessing how your audience feels may also be the key to finding common ground. Refer to 9.8: Reaching a Hostile Audience for more information.

  • What new information can you provide? New information about a topic or its purpose can keep the audience engaged in a way rehashing old information cannot.

  • What is your relationship to the audience? This can affect your tone and how much of yourself you insert into the paper. For example, addressing an authority figure would require a different approach than addressing a relative peer or a complete stranger.

 

The Effect of Audience on Style

Like a conversation, in addition to your audience affecting what you say, your audience can sometimes affect how you say that content as well. The following items are some things to consider:

  • Purpose: What does your audience care about or believe in? What will move your audience to act? It will help your paper if you can align its purpose with something the audience cares about. See 9.6: Moral Character for more information on this.

  • Backing: What kind of evidence will convince your audience? Remember what looks like strong evidence to you may appear flimsy to your audience.

  • Sentence Type and Length: Should you use long and complex sentences? Or short ones? The reading level of your paper should match the reading level of your audience.

  • Level of Formality: Should you use technical jargon? Or slang? Avoid the temptation to ‘sound academic’ with technical words and phrases unless the situation calls for it. 

  • Tone: Formal or informal? Serious or humorous? Distanced or personal? Hitting the right tone will help your audience take you more seriously. Consider checking out 8.4: Tone or 9.3: Distance and Intimacy for more resources related to this.

 

Reaching Out to the Audience

Many audiences form an opinion about what they read by the end of the introduction. Take advantage of this information to make sure you make a positive first impression. Try to pick a title that your audience may recognize or resonate with. Work on a hook that is geared towards your audience (as opposed to something that is purely provocative or attention-grabbing). Consider making a direct appeal to your audience in the introduction, and end your introduction with a thesis statement modeled after the values you know your reader will identify with. Check out 7.1: Introductions for more information about this.

 

Addressing a Diverse Audience

The word "Bias" crossed out with a single red line.

Image by OnlineStreet, licensed CC BY 4.0.

While the previous points have been geared towards writing to a specific audience, the following items are some good practices to observe for any audience you may encounter.

  • Recognize your cultural filter: Cultures are formed from a variety of factors like class, gender, generation, religion, and education. Your culture shapes how you view the world and can at times prevent you from understanding different backgrounds. Do your best to understand how your cultural values may be affecting your argument and how they may differ from your audience’s.

  • Avoid ethnocentrism: Assuming that your culture’s values, customs, or beliefs are superior to another’s is ethnocentrism. It’s an attitude that can alienate your audience. Be careful not to assume that all cultural practices are shared. Suspend any judgments or cultural stereotypes.

  • Adopt bias-free language: Biased language is tricky and has a way of sneaking into writing when you least expect it. While you may think writing “the male lawyer” provides important detail, including the lawyer’s gender suggests the law is an inherently male or masculine profession. So, be mindful of any biased, sexist, or stereotypical language that may come from unconscious biases as you’re writing and edit accordingly.

  • Acknowledge issues of oppression. Similar to ethnocentrism, the language we write or speak might convey a negative bias towards individuals or groups. If your message stereotypes a group, even unconsciously, you risk offending your audience. Examples of discriminating language to avoid include:

    • Racism – Your audience will be diverse. By recognizing that there are many cultural frames of reference, you’ll reach each reader or listener effectively. Unless it is necessary, avoid references to ethnicity.

    • Heterosexism – If your essay or speech depicts a relationship, don’t assume that each member of your audience is heterosexual.

    • Ageism – Many pervasive stereotypes exist with regard to the age of individuals. If you write or speak about an elderly person, challenge discriminating ideas such as “old people are feeble” or “teenagers lack wisdom.”

    • Sexism – While sexist language assumes one term for both genders, sexism suggests one sex or gender is inferior to the other. To suggest that females are emotional and men are logical privileges one sex over the other, while stereotyping that all of one sex have the same traits or characteristics.

 

Attribution

  • Portions of the above were written by Dylan Altman, licensed CC BY 4.0.

License

Icon for the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

Upping Your Argument and Research Game Copyright © 2022 by Liona Burnham is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book