A research-based argument may have as its goal to describe the nature of something, whether it be an abstract concept like justice, a historical event, or an ongoing trend. Definition arguments like this are arguments because they seek to shape our vision of reality. We can think of them as answering the question “What is it?”
Definition arguments may attempt to explain what is meant by a particular term. Take the following claim:
Organic, in terms of food, means plants and animals raised without additives or artificial growing conditions.
The argument here hinges upon understanding the definition of the word “organic.” In this case, organic is the subject of the argument. The claim goes on to base the argument on definition criteria. The claim states that two definition criteria of “organic” are “raised without additives” and “raised without artificial growing conditions.” “What do they mean by ‘artificial’?” If you find yourself questioning other terms used in the claim, that might mean your argument will need to dedicate a paragraph or more to defining those terms. An extended argument on organic food would need to explain in detail what distinguishes artificial growing conditions from natural ones. Can greenhouse-grown food be organic? In such a situation, it may benefit the argument to offer the dictionary definition of “organic” as a way to confirm that writer and the readers’ assumptions are the same.
There are a number of online dictionaries that student authors can derive a definition from, but should the writer wish to ensure trust (ethos) with the audience, the source of the dictionary definition might matter. The dictionary.com site offers this definition for “organic”:
Organic: pertaining to, involving, or grown with fertilizers or pesticides of animal or vegetable origin, as distinguished from manufactured chemicals” (“organic”).
Readers who respect the history and legacy of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) might consider its definition more credible. Considered the most definitive and complete dictionary available, the OED offers differentiated definitions of different uses of the word. In the case of “organic,” we’d need to look at sub-definition 8c to find one that works for our purposes:
Organic: of food: produced without the use of artificial fertilizers, pesticides, or other artificial chemicals.
A definition argument can put a more specific subject into a category based on criteria, as in the following:
Though it omits hormones and antibiotics, organic ice cream remains unhealthy because it contains high levels of fat and sugar, while offering little nutritional value.
Here we have a subject – organic ice cream – and a category – unhealthy. Presumably, unhealthy things often contain similar criteria – high levels of fat and sugar, low nutritional value, and industrial additives. Organic ice cream might not contain industrial additives, but, because it meets the other two criteria, it can still be considered unhealthy. A good way to test your thesis is to try out examples to see if the criteria work to distinguish things that fit the category from things that don’t. Are other things we consider unhealthy full of sugar and/or fat, low in nutrition, and made with industrial additives? Yes. Fast food hamburgers are unhealthy because they contain high levels of fat, low nutritional value, and are full of chemical preservatives.
Definition arguments will need to provide evidence for any generalizations they make about a subject. If they use a specific example, how can they show that the example is typical? They may also need to justify the choice of criteria for the definition. If we argue that the Vietnam War should not be considered a “World War” even though it involved two global superpowers, the U.S. and the Soviet Union, we will need to explain why a criterion like the number of deaths should be considered more important than the number or size of the countries involved.
The benefits of definition
Once we understand the value of definition for clarifying terms in an essay, we can start to appreciate the value of definition in shaping an argument, especially one centered around a contentious term. When controversy revolves around an issue, defining terms explicitly and precisely is even more critical. In Section 4.2: Check If the Meaning Is Clear, we saw how mixing different meanings of one term can disguise a problem with the logic of an argument (if this is done intentionally, it is called equivocation). A definition argument can help avoid this kind of slippage, and it can clarify where disagreements lie. Even if it doesn’t resolve the disagreements, it may at least prevent misunderstandings.
One example lies in the definition of “life” in the abortion debate. Those on the pro-life side argue “life” is defined by the initial meeting of sperm and egg, and the subsequent division of cells. On the other hand, those on the pro-choice side often argue that “life” is determined by autonomy, by the fetus’s ability to survive outside the womb, and this, generally, is possible at twenty-four weeks. Prior to that, the fetus is fully dependent for survival upon the security of the woman’s womb.
To take another example, let’s say the government decides to allow health insurance providers to exclude coverage to individuals with preexisting conditions. The question then arises, what precisely does constitute a preexisting condition? Any diagnosis of cancer, including minor skin cancers? Diabetes? Obesity? Hypertension? Consider how many of our friends and family members have been diagnosed with any of these conditions.
Laws rely on definitions. Many of us are familiar with the purpose of Title IX, which ensured that equal funding should be applied for both male and female athletic programs in schools. However, with the recognition of transgender students and their rights, the U.S. Department of Education offered a statement of clarification to the language of Title IX: “explaining that it will enforce Title IX’s prohibition on discrimination on the basis of sex to include: (1) discrimination based on sexual orientation; and (2) discrimination based on gender identity” (“Title IX”). Schools, students, and parents can now point to this language in debates about who is protected by Title IX status, and who can be included in the funding of gender-specific sports teams. Legal definitions often depend upon qualifiers, as in the case of the gun debate. Many on the pro-gun rights argument will not extend the definition of guns to include fully automatic guns; thus, they will often only agree with new gun restrictions that exclude AR 47s from such regulations.
Definitions involve emotional associations as well as descriptions of literal meaning. Public opinion can be swayed by casting a person involved in a very public event as “famous” or “infamous,” a term that has decidedly negative connotations. In the case of Trayvon Martin, a young black man who was shot by George Zimmerman, a white man, Martin was defined alternately as a “boy in a hoodie” or as a “potential thug.” And Zimmerman was defined as “a neighborhood watch leader” or “private citizen” by some, and a “vigilante” by others. In each case, the label implies a definition of the person and his behavior, and this extends the impression built in the mind of the audience.
Strategies for definition
Referring to existing definitions
A dictionary definition can be helpful if the term under consideration is new or very unusual or uncommon, words which readers may be unfamiliar with, or whose definitions may have become obscured with modern use. If an argument takes the position that reduced literacy rates in freshman college students makes them less apt to learn from a professor who leans toward sesquipedalian speech, yet, such speech is exactly the challenge these students need to pull them away from their social media feeds and engage them in the vigorous mental workout that academia provides, the author is more likely to earn the trust of the audience if a dictionary definition is provided for this uncommon and archaic word: words that are a foot and a half long (O.E.D.).
Identifying emotional associations (connotations)
Emotional associations offer the various levels of meaning a word may have. For example, love can have several variants, such as platonic love, romantic love, familial love, passionate love, self-love, and even more specific ones, such as spirituality, philanthropy, humanity, nationalism/patriotism, and agapé, and each carries its own emotional tone which informs the definition. The essay “What is Poverty” offers multiple connotations of poverty through the numerous illustrations.
Defining a term based on what it’s not (negation)
Sometimes complex words are best explained by what they are not, specifically by contrasting the word to another term. Needs are often confused with wants, but needs are anything necessary for survival. For example, people often say “I need a vacation,” when what they really mean is, “I want a vacation.” You may want coffee, but you need water. You may want a new car, but a used one may suit your needs. In an article about sexual predators,Andrew Vachss says that when he tells people about the individuals he prosecutes for abuse against children, people often say, “that’s sick.” But he clarifies that there is a difference between “sick” and “evil.” A mother who hears voices in her head telling her to lock her baby in a closet is sick. A man who sells a child to pornographers is evil. “Sickness,” he says, “is the absence of choice,” while evil is the volition, the awareness of choice, and the intentional choice to commit a sinister act (Vachss).
Creating an original definition (stipulation)
This use of definition asks the reader to accept an alternate definition from the standard or commonly accepted one. This is usually the best way to utilize definition in an essay, as it allows the author the freedom to put his or her own spin on a key term. But the author must do it responsibly, providing supportive examples. For example, many young people believe that true parental love is the willingness to do anything at all for a child. However, real love isn’t expressed by doormat behavior. A parent who does his child’s homework so the child receives all “A” grades isn’t demonstrating love {note the use of negation here}. Rather, true parental love is the willingness to apply fair rules and limits on behavior in order to raise a child who is a good worker, a good friend, and a good citizen.
Elaborating on a definition (extended definition)
There is no rule about how long a definition argument should be. When a simple one-line definition will not suffice, writers can develop a multi-paragraph, multi-page or multi-chapter definition argument. For example, a newspaper article might explore at length what is meant by the phrase “cancel culture.” An entire book each might be needed to explain what is meant by the following terms: “critical race theory,” “microagression,” “gender identity,” “fascism,” or “intersectionality.” When the concept under examination is complex, contentious, or weighted by historical examples and emotional connotations, an extended definition may be needed.
The student essay “Defining Stereotypes” by Imanol Juarez can serve as another example. Annotations on this essay point out how Juarez uses several definition argument strategies.
How are attitudes to gender changing in today’s society? Come up with a definition argument you think has some validity about a current trend related to gender. What kind of evidence could be gathered to support this claim? How would you convince readers that this evidence is typical? You could choose one of the claims below or invent your own.
People today still associate femininity with weakness and masculinity with strength.
Women are still more nurturing than men.
Teenagers today see gender as a spectrum.
Cisgender people still fear transgender people.
Exercises
Construct a definition with criteria for one of the following terms, or another term of your choice related to gender. Feel free to research the terms to get ideas. Possible terms: masculine, feminine, androgynous, macho, femme, butch, manly, womanly, machista, metrosexual, genderqueer, third gender, transgender.
Exercises
Choose one of the following articles. Which of the definition strategies listed in this section can you identify in the argument? Can you think of any other strategies the author might have used?
What defines you? As people, we often consider ourselves to be multifaceted, complex beings. (Note: The author opens the essay with a personal question, a strategy to get the reader’s attention.) Yet in every culture people stereotype others, and oversimplified beliefs about people and cultures have a negative impact every day. (Note: A literal definition of the word “stereotypes.”) Even though America’s society is exceptional in positive ways, it is also exceptional in its use of stereotypes, which can be seen through the racism that still pervades the U.S. Stereotyping is a form of racism that creates a single depiction of a group of people based on one aspect of their identity. (Note: The thesis defines stereotypes and the criteria the essay will use to explain this definition.)
Most cultures intentionally or unintentionally manipulate the images of a certain group or person, and as a result, stereotypical depictions are a widespread form of racism. (Note: The essay focuses on the connotation of stereotypes and how they function in the U.S.)For example, the Ferris State University’s Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia can give a dark glimpse into racist depictions of Latinos: “The stereotypical depictions of Mexicans, especially those thought to be in the United States illegally, are harsh and demeaning. The men are portrayed as illiterate criminals. The women are depicted as hypersexual. Both men and women are portrayed as lazy, dirty, physically unattractive menaces” (Ferris State). (Note: Evidence for the assertion that stereotypes are racist.) In extreme cases, racial profiling can be considered a form of stereotyping. Racial profiling is “the use of race or ethnicity as grounds for suspecting someone of having committed an offense.” One example of racial profiling took place on February 23, 2020, when two white men took the life of a young 26-year-old African American man named Ahmad Marquez Arbery while he was jogging around his neighborhood: “Gregory McMichael told the police that he thought Mr. Arbery looked like a man suspected in several break-ins in the area,” demonstrating the most abhorrent outcome of racist stereotypes (NewYork Times).
Some may argue that there is such a thing as a good stereotype, but all stereotypes are inherently racist. (Note: Juarez addresses the counterargument to his definition of stereotypes.) Yes, many cultures have stereotypes that are positive, but are they truly beneficial? Sam Killermann states in “3 Reasons Positive Stereotypes Aren’t That Positive,” “Positive stereotypes exist for just about every identity and have the capacity to be just as damaging as the negative ones.” Take the stereotype that people of Asian descent are good at math. Positive stereotypes not only set standards high but also discourage individuals from performing; good stereotypes can also alienate individuals and make them depressed because they don’t have the characteristics everybody believes they have. (Note: The definition argument leads to a causal argument about how positive stereotyping can impact people.) There are many forms of stereotypes, but one thing is for sure: there is never such a thing as a good stereotype.
(Note: The Works Cited page uses MLA documentation style appropriate for an English class.)
Works Cited
“Mexican and Latino Stereotypes.” Mexican and Latino Stereotypes – Jim Crow Museum – Ferris State University, www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/mexican.htm.
Sam Killermann. “3 Reasons Positive Stereotypes Aren’t That Positive.” It’s Pronounced Metrosexual, Sam Killermann www.itspronouncedmetrosexual.com/2012/04/reasons-positive-stereotypes-are-not-positive/.
The New York Times. “Ahmaud Arbery Shooting: A Timeline of the Case.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 8 May 2020, www.nytimes.com/article/ahmaud-arbery-timeline.html.
Attribution
This sample essay was written by Imanol Juarez, annotated by Natalie Peterkin, and edited by Anna Mills, licensed CC BY-NC 4.0.
Sample Definition Outline
When Colleges Talk about Diversity, Equity, and Antiracism, What Do They Mean?
Thesis: Colleges sometimes use the terms “diversity,” “equity,” and “antiracism” as if they are interchangeable, but they have very different implications.
Background: Colleges are looking to use inclusive language to show their support for students who are at a disadvantage in their education because of who they are.
Consider the history of academia, largely centered around white, Western European men.
Social change movements have demanded progress
The Civil Rights Movement lead to access, but no real changes in academic language.
The Equal Rights Amendment increased interest and awareness of Women’s Studies.
Chicano Rights Movement lead to the creation of Chicano Studies courses of study and major programs.
In some cases, mainstream core curriculum maintains a Eurocentric Western male focus; in others, that’s no longer true.
“Diversity” emphasizes inclusion and representation of different identities.
The Oxford English Dictionary’s definition of “diverse”: “Different in character or quality; not of the same kind; not alike in nature or qualities” (OED).
“Diverse” doesn’t refer to a precise form of identity, but can include race, ethnicity, gender identity, sexual orientation, ability
Such an open definition extends inclusion to all possible groups in an academic setting.
Note that “Diverse” does not suggest a critique of systems of power that help some people and hurt others.
“Antiracist” draws attention to one form of oppression and the need to actively oppose that oppression
How the term became popular
The Black Lives Matter Movement: Social outrage over the murders of unarmed African Americans escalated with each new death: Trayvon Martin (2013), George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Ahmaud Arbery
X. J. Kendi’s work, How to be an Antiracist introduces the world to the definition of “antiracist.”
The national conversation changes to include antiracist; educators take note and respond.
“Antiracist” doesn’t refer to other forms of oppression, such as classism, sexism, cissexism, heterosexism, ableism, anti-immigrant sentiment or others.
“Equity” emphasizes providing educational resources to disadvantaged groups according to need.
It suggests trying to compensate for systemic inequalities in how people are able to access their education based on class, race, gender, learning style, ability.
What equity doesn’t mean (negation): Equity doesn’t refer to equal opportunity or equal rights.
Image commonly used to show equity: Three people of varying heights pick apples from a tree. Each stands on a stool just high enough to allow them to reach. Image by MPCA Photos on Flickr, licensed CC BY-NC 2.0.
Conclusion: When considering which term to choose or whether to use all three, we can think about whether we want to emphasize inclusion of an infinite range of identities, resistance against racism in particular, or the attempt to compensate for systemic inequalities and get all students what they need to succeed at a high level.
